Instructional+Strategies

Visually Cued Instruction is a teaching strategy that has been researched and proven to be highly effective with students diagnosed with autism. Many autistic students aren't able to comprehend information as well through auditory instruction as they can visually, so the traditional method of spoken teacher instruction is not effective for these students. Visual learners are children that process and retain information better if it is presented in a format where it is written down and can be seen, as opposed to primarily hearing the information. Visually cued instruction is great for visual learners as it is the use of graphic cues such as pictographs and or written words. They can be used as an instructional prompt, which is when the visual cue accompanies gestural and spoken prompts to aid language comprehension and communication. They can also be used as an environmental prompt, which is when the visual cue is available to the child once physical, gestural, and spoken prompts have faded to aid organizational skills and improve self-management. Visually Cued Instruction helps students in the areas of attention, perception, information processing and memory. It was found that when a pictographic stimulus was used, children with autism sustained focussed attention as good as the rest of the children.

One approach for visually cued instruction is the use of visual strategies. These can be defined as two-dimensional or three-dimensional representations of a concept to communicate and teach the idea or concept. Examples are pictures, icons (black and white cartoon like images), photographs or gestures to enhance the understanding of spoken word(s) communicating an idea. The use of visual strategies can strengthen the child's understanding of the communication in their environment. When using visual strategies, it is important to remember the following points:
 * Visual strategies do not exclude vocal exchange. The limited use of key words is frequently used to try and reinforce the receptive meaning of spoken words.
 * Visual strategies should be viewed as a temporary support mechanism for communication and reduced when appropriate to the individual.
 * The goal of visual strategies is to enhance the meaning of communication for the child. No one particular approach is right for every child in this subgroup and alternative types of visual strategies may need to be tried before a "best" approach is discovered for a student.

Another approach is movement based systems. This involves sign language as a form of communication with autistic children. Certain hand movement represent different concepts or ideas and allows the student and others to communicate. The only problem with this is that the student cannot communicate with everybody in this form. Only the people who are aware of what the hand movements mean will be able to understand what they are saying. Gesture and expressions are also a way to communicate with the student. this can include pointing to things or smiling to show the student they have done well.

Materials-Based Systems has a few different ways it helps students with autism learn to communicate. //TEACCH// is based on Eric SChoplers work at the University of North Carolina and it is build around adapting the environment to accommodate children with autism. It provides structure for the child through the use of pictoral schedules that visually represent events throughout the day or specific steps that need to be taken to complete a task. It accommodates the child by having a specific area in the classroom for tasks such as workstations for individual work or areas for group activities. //Nina Lovaas// has a Reading and Writing programme that also uses written pictures to communicate with children. It also teaches the child to read words by matching these with the pictures. Eventually, it leads to the child having to write or type as a means of communicating their thoughts. //PECS// was designed by Lori Frost and Andrew Body and it uses small cards to represent items the child wants. The child is encouraged to take the card to the communication partner as a way of letting them know what they want. The child is then given the item in exchange for the card. This system can be used to teach other concepts or abstract ideas once the child understands the process.

Having a successful communication system in place for a child with autism is very important. Research has shown that there is a link between behavioral problems and poor communication among students. If an effective communication system is lacking, it is likely that the child will have increased tantrums, aggression and even self-injury. Every child is different and it may take several tries with a form of visual communication to find something that works. However, almost all children with autism have a hard time with auditory instruction, so visual is a more successful and beneficial way to communicate.

Quill, Kathleen A. Instructional Considerations for Young Children with Autism: The Rationale for Visually Cued Instruction //Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.//27(6) []

Catherine Tissot & Roy Evans (2003): Visual Teaching Strategies for Children with Autism, Early Child Development and Care, 173:4, 425-433 []

Previewing involves the introduction of social or motor skills that will be practiced before the student arrives at class. One of the primary goals of previewing is to reduce the amount of anxiety experienced by a student with ASD. Familiarizing the student with upcoming events makes the gymnasium a less threatening place and supports the student's social development. The most common types used in previewing include visual schedules and social stories. Also called "graphic organizers," visual schedules present key information that help students make connections between movement skills and the sequence of progressions required to complete a task. They are often pictorial representations of specific skills. Teachers can reinforce positive social behaviors by modeling specific skills identified on the graphic organizer. Also, social stories provide meaningful accounts of potentially challenging situations with a focus on specific points such as social cues or reactions the student might encounter. They tend to be oriented toward classroom behaviors that reflect a specific anxiety. Typically, social stories describe a relevant event for the student with ASD, while visual schedules describe generalized skills that can be used for the entire class.

Previewing is a strategy for working with students with ASD whose learning goals include the development of appropriate social engagement in inclusive settings. It is designed to improve on-task behaviors, as well as physical- and social-skill development, by presenting key information before the start of class. One of the outcomes associated with previewing is a better familiarization with learning cues and the sequence of activities within the class structure. It is important to remember that this strategy should be only one of many interventions. It should result from the collaboration between physical education teachers and other educators to develop individually designed supports to promote student learning. Finally, teachers must be willing to learn new instructional techniques that will help them address the increasing number of students on the autism spectrum.

Procedures for Delivering Previews Eight simple steps can help teachers develop and deliver effective previews. > Grenier, M., & Yeaton, P. (2011). Previewing: A successful strategy for students with autism. //Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance,// //82//(1), 28-32,43. http://search.proquest.com/docview/847640268?accountid=13480
 * 1) **Establish a Positive Relationships with Educators.** To effectively serve the needs of all students, it is important for the physical educator to be a member of the school community by building positive relationships with classroom teachers, paraprofessionals, and related service providers. Each individual can offer the physical educator information that will help him or her address the specific needs of the student with ASD. Investing the time to get to know the student's teachers allows for more instructional flexibility.
 * 2) **Identify Student Abilities.** In order to determine which tool can be used for previewing, a functional assessment of the environment should be conducted to determine students' needs and abilities. Things to consider are the goals for the class, the desired student outcomes, information that is important for the student to know before coming to class, activities that can be previewed, and the appropriateness of the tasks. Although the planning process for previewing is usually for the benefit of students with autism specifically, the practice itself can benefit all students, particularly those who learn best when information is presented in a visual manner or in an environment with minimal distractions.
 * 3) **Identify Outcomes for Each Unit or Lesson.** There are many sources that can be used to help a teacher identify appropriate outcomes for their students, including local, provincial, and federal standards. Outcomes for students with disabilities are determined based on the student's disability and the unit of instruction being taught. A developmental task analysis is one avenue for determining the task and environmental features that affect the movement pattern. When breaking down the skills in a task analysis, discreet steps should be presented based on individual students' needs. The materials used should be consistent with each child's ability to understand what is being presented. Is he or she familiar with the equipment and the skills? Can he or she retain the information?
 * 4) **Create a Visual Lesson Plan.** Visual schedules are developed to help both the teacher and the students to "visualize" what will take place in class. They provide a step-by-step lesson with graphics or cues that will be used for the day's instruction. Teachers could use photos of students performing the skills or photos from textbooks, magazines, and other resources. Another suggestion is using the Picture Exchange Communication System, which includes cards that represent the skills to be learned. Simplicity is key. There should be very little writing on the sheet, and it should be no more than one page in length.
 * 5) **Identify Time and Location.** The physical education teacher must work closely with the classroom teacher to determine a time and place, convenient for both, to preview the lesson for the day. At the elementary level, discussing the day's events during the morning meeting works well, because younger students tend to be more focused at the beginning of the day. If that is not convenient, teachers can schedule a brief meeting during students' snack time or, at the very least, preview the material before the students enter the gymnasium for class. The equipment to be used in class can be previewed as well, in order to satisfy students' curiosity by allowing them to touch and manipulate it. In the previewing session, the physical educator should provide a short run down of the lesson, model the skills, and discuss the cues. This is also a time when students can ask questions about the skills. Although a daily previewing session is ideal, schedules should be provided at least once a week to routinize the practice and familiarize students with the protocol.
 * 6) **Use Related Service Providers.** Collaborating with direct and related service providers, such as the occupational therapist (OT) and physical therapist (PT), can help teachers finalize details for the schedules and stories. It also creates a wrap-around effect that can assist students to transition from one environment to another. Multiple reinforcements of key learning skills will enable the student to understand that everyone is on the same page and has the same expectations
 * 7) **Put the Schedule in a Visible Location.** When previewing in the classroom, the schedule should be visually accessible so students can periodically review it. This reinforces the learning experience of all students, not only of students with ASD.
 * 8) **Assess Teacher Practices.** Simple assessments such as observations, checklists, and verbal questions enable teachers to examine the effectiveness of their strategies. Updating and revising should be done as needed. The ultimate goal is to reduce the amount of support over rime as the student reaches the point of needing only simple reminders.

Menear, K. S., & Smith, S. C. (2011). Teaching physical education to students with autism spectrum disorders. //Strategies,// //24//(3), 21-24. http://search.proquest.com/docview/845246628?accountid=13480

**Applied Behaviour Analysis**
Applied behaviour analysis is a strategy used to modify behaviour of individuals, predominantly those with Autism Spectrum Disorder. It is an individualized process which includes studying an individual's behaviours, changing the environment to better suit the needs of the individual, and monitoring the results. A benefit to using this approach is that it can be used to modify any behaiviour of social significance. It is most effective when started early and applied in all areas of the child's life.

Behaivioural treatment is an ongoing process that does not simply end with the instuction. Much practice is needed for behavioural treatment to be effective and continuous observation must be present. Repetition is another vital element in applied behaviour analysis, as it is an ongoing practice of fundamental skills.

Applied behaviour analysis is effective not only for fundamental social skills, but also to teach sequences and attain desired behaviour in completing tasks and activities.

**__Steps Used in Applied Behaviour Analysis:__** __Task Analysis:__ observe the tasks and behaviours that the child is presenting. __Chaining:__ Break skills into the smallest tasks for easier learning. __Prompting:__ encourage the child to complete the task using the least interferring strategy possible __Fading:__ begin to use less and less prompts so that eventually the child can complete the task/desired behaviour without assistance. __Shaping__: The shift from changing the existing behaiviour to the desired behaviour/outcome. Be sure to give lots of positive feedback so the child knows and can better understand their behaiviours. __Differential Reinforcement:__ Respond to the child's behaiviour approriately. If it is a difficult task that the child has just completed, praise them emmensely for their behaiviour. This will help them to realize the importance of the changes they are making. Positive reinforcement is key and wil help to shape future actions and behaviours of the child, __Generalization__: After the skill/task/or behaviour is learned; practice it in different settings so that it becomes automatic __Video Modelling:__ Video modelling works well as a reminder to the child of the sequences they must go through to perform a task.

It is important for teachers to understand applied behaviour analysis because many parents of children on the spectrum will be using these techniques at home to assist their child in developing social skills and positive behaviours and it is vital for this child to have structure in his/her life. Utilizing strategies of applied behaivour analysis at school will benefit the child in many aspects and help them to succeed both in and out of the school environment. This instructional strategy is proven to be highly successful for students with autism, however, understanding applied behaviour analysis and utilizing methods of ABA could also benefit other students as well. In the article from "Journal of Intellectual Disabilities" a group of teachers are brought together to learn more about applied behaviour analysis and its effectiveness. Many of the teachers question why they did not know this information before and found the workshop key to teaching any student with autism, and effective for all students in general. The article states, "interventions for children with autism based upon Applied Behaiviour Analysis (ABA) has been repeatedly shown to be related both to educational gains and to reductions in challenging behaviours." Despite the positive reprocusions of ABA it is difficult to follow and implement ABA into a school setting because there are so few people with knowledge regarding the intructional strategy and limited "specialist training for teachers in ABA and autism itself".

I feel that a great way to start imlementing Applied Behaviour Analysis into the classroom would be to focus on one key skill/behaiviour at a time with an individual. This would benefit not only the student in his/her structure and coping with the difficulties autism, but also the teacher, and the students in better understanding ways to assist the child with autism through typical life at school.


 * Grey, Ian M. et. Al's. (2005). //Evaluating the effectiveness of teacher training in Applied Behaviour Analysis: Journal of Intellectual Disabilities 2005 vol. 9(3) 209-227.// London: Sage Publications. retrieved from: __jid.sagepub.com/content/9/3/209__**
 * Jensen, Vanessa K. & Sinclair, Leslie V. (2002). //Treatment of Autism in Young Children: Behavioural Intervention and Applied Behaviour Analysis.// 14 (4): 42-52. Aspen Publishers, Inc.**
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